Overview
Many insect and mites attack trees in Asia. Although someaffect production in nearly all locations, many others are of only localsignificance. Relatively few species cause significant crop loss in their ownright, and are only a problem when the population exceeds damaging thresholds.The less important species may at times require special attention, especially iftheir natural enemies have been disrupted by chemical sprays.
There are a few diseases affecting leaves, flowers andfruit, and some others causing tree deaths or decline. However, no major diseasecurrently limits production in the Region. Brown blight (Peronophythora litchii)infects leaves, panicles and fruit in China and Thailand, but can be controlledwith metalaxyl. Anthracnose (Colletotrichum gloeosporoides) and similar diseasesalso attack fruit in China, India and Australia. Parasitic algae and nematodesaffect some orchards, but can be readily controlled with available chemicals.Various organisms have been associated with tree deaths or decline in Asia andAustralia, although their pathogenicity is yet to be proven.
7.1 Major pests
Regardless of where lychee is grown, several insect groupsattack the flowers, fruit, leaves and branches. Lepidopterous fruit borers aregenerally the most important pests affecting production. Other important speciesinclude various leaf- and flower-eating caterpillars and beetles, bark borers,scales, leaf mites, fruit-sucking bugs, fruit-piercing moths and fruitflies.
7.1.1 Fruit borers
Conopomorpha sinensis Bradley, known as the lycheestem-end borer in China and the lychee fruit borer in Thailand, is the majorpest in most seasons. This pest was previously recorded as Acrocercopscramerella (now Conopomorpha cramerella Snellen). C. sinensisand the related C. litchiella Bradley both attack lychee, the latterpreferring leaves and shoots, while C. cramerella is restricted torambutan and cocoa (Bradley, 1986).
C. sinensis lays yellow, scale-like eggs 0.4 x 0.2 mmlong on the fruit any time after flowering, as well as on new leaves and shoots.Both lychee and longan are affected. The eggs hatch in three to five days, withthe larva immediately penetrating the fruit, leaf or shoot. They tunnel throughthe flesh of the fruit that often fall from the tree.
In Thailand, fruit are inspected weekly from fruit set todetect eggs of C. sinensis, which are very small and almost invisible tothe naked eye. Infested fruit should be picked and destroyed, at infestationlevels of 1 to 2 percent. When the pest becomes more active, permethrin isapplied weekly, up to two weeks before harvest. In Taiwan Province of China,cypermethrin, deltamethrin, carbofuran or fenthion during early fruit set isrecommended to prevent damage later in the season. Moths can be excluded byenclosing the fruit panicles in nylon mesh bags, but is uneconomic in areas withhigh labour costs. If the parasitoids Phanerotoma sp. andApanteles sp. are not active, fallen fruit should be removed to reducethe build-up of moths.
All stages of the leaf-miner, Conopomorpha litchiellaBradley, are similar to those of the fruit borer. The female lays its eggs onnew shoots and the small, light-yellow eggs hatch three to five days later. Thenewly hatched larva is creamy white, and bores into shoots and leaf blades,usually into the mid-rib and veins. The moths are attracted to leaf flushes thatemerge during the rainy season from June to October in Thailand. Affected shootsoften wilt.
Bearing trees should be inspected during early flushdevelopment and sprayed if necessary. The leaf flush before flower initiation isvery important as it supplies the carbohydrates needed for fruit development. If30 to 40 percent of the larvae are parasitised, spraying is not recommended.Young, non-bearing trees do not need to be sprayed either. This also allows theparasitoids to build up in the orchard.
The insect originally referred to as Argyroploceillepida Butler (= Cryptophlebia carpophaga Walsingham) in India(Butani, 1977), is actually Cryptophlebia ombrodelta Lower (Bradley,1953). It also occurs in Thailand, China, Japan, Taiwan Province of China andAustralia, but only in the latter area is it regarded as a significantpest.
The creamy white eggs of these species are oval and flat witha reticulate surface, and are about 1.0 x 0.8 mm. They are laid singly or ingroups of up to 15 on the fruit surface. The newly hatched larva feeds on thefruit skin and then tunnels towards the seed. In immature fruit, the young larvabores directly into the seed, which is completely eaten. A single larva maydamage two or three fruit, if the fruit are small. However, they prefer maturecolouring fruit with larger seeds.
In South Africa, the insect growth regulator, triflumuron as asingle, full cover spray 40 days before harvest, or two sprays of teflubenzurona fortnight apart commencing when the fruit are 10 mm in diameter, arerecommended. Alternatively, the panicles can be covered with paper bags. Thebags also improve fruit colour and overall quality. In Queensland, carbaryl andazinphos-methyl have been used with varying success. Several sprays commencingat fruit colouring are applied on a calendar basis, with monitoring for thepresence of eggs less common. Newer insecticides including the insect growthregulator, tebufenozide, provide better control, with less disruption to naturalenemies.
The various species of Cryptophlebia are attacked bytheir own complex of egg, larval and pupal parasitoids; however, these do notalways keep borers below economic thresholds. Egg parasitoids such asTrichogrammatoidea fulva Nagaraja from India and T. cryptophlebiaefrom South Africa and Australia, offer the best prospects for biologicalcontrol.
7.1.2 Fruit-piercing moths
Fruit-piercing moths such as Eudocima (Othreis)fullonia (Clerck), Eudocima salaminia (Cramer) and Eudocimajordani (Holland) are important throughout Asia, Australia and the SouthPacific. The larvae of these moths develop on a variety of host plants such asthe coral tree, Erythrina, and vines of the Menispermaceae(Legnephora, Stephania, Fawcettia, Tinospora,Carronia, Sarcopetalum, Pleogyne andHypserpa).
The moths have a proboscis that drills a neat hole in the skinof the fruit allowing them to suck the juice from the flesh. Contamination ofthe wound with yeasts and bacteria carried on the proboscis destroys the fruit.Drosophila spp. attracted to the fermenting juice hastens deterioration.Within a few days, a frothy exudate seeps from the fruit and stains undamagedfruit close by. In Australia and Thailand, farmers go to their orchards at nightwith spotlights and attempt to catch the moths. However, this isfutile.
Australian farmers also make traps by draping shade clothloosely over a frame of wire and baiting it with fermenting citrus and bananas.The moths feed on the fruit and become entangled in the folds of the shade clothwhen they attempt to fly off. Several traps are required to protect an orchardand even then, substantial damage is sustained. In Thailand, ripe bananas andpineapples are dipped in insecticide and hung in the trees to poison the feedingmoths. In some countries, panicles are covered with paper bags. In recent times,parrots and fruit bats have become a severe problem for growers in Australia.Fine nets erected over the orchard control fruit-piercing moths as well as thevertebrate pests.
7.1.3 Leaf-feeding caterpillars
Oxyodes scrobiculata F. and Oxyodes tricolorGuen. occupy similar niches in Thailand and Australia. In Australia, O.tricolor attacks trees in southern Queensland, but is not a pest in thenorth. The castor oil looper, Achaea janata (L.), is a voracious feederin Australia and often infests trees in large numbers at the same time as O.tricolor. The caterpillars can cause severe defoliation.
In Thailand it is recommended that carbaryl be applied whenthere are two to three young larvae per leaflet. Shaking the tree to dislodgelarvae onto the ground improves the effectiveness of the sprays. If 40 percentor more of larvae are parasitised, sprays should not be necessary. In Australia,Bacillus thuringiensis Berliner (Bt), endosulfan or methomyl may be usedwhen damaging populations of O. tricolor appear.
7.1.4 Leafrollers
Olethreutes perdulata Meyr. is an occasional pest inQueensland. Platypeplus aprobola (Meyrick) has also been recorded inAustralia, China and India. Adoxophyes cyrtosema Meyr. and hom*onacoffearia Nietner attack trees in Guangzhou and Fujian. The latter speciesalong with hom*ona difficilis is recorded in lychee, longan and rambutanin Thailand. The orange fruit borer, Isotenes miserana (Walker), isanother leafroller that also attacks flowers and fruit in Queensland.
P. aprobola is a minor pest in China and India where itattacks leaves and flowers. However in Australia, it is part of a complex ofspecies contributing to a significant loss of flowers. In China, A.cyrtosema and H. coffearia also feed on leaves, flowers andfruit.
In Australia, the damage caused by leafrollers is tolerated solong as it is restricted to the foliage and unlikely to affect flowerinitiation. If necessary, methomyl or carbaryl can be applied when 20 percent ofleaf flushes are infested, to minimize damage to young trees or at criticalperiods of leaf growth in older trees. In India, rolled leaves that containlarvae are removed manually during light infestations, but phosphamidon,fenitrothion or endosulfan are applied for heavy infestations.
7.1.5 Beetle borers
The longicorn beetle, Aristobia testudo (Voet), is aserious pest of lychee and longan in Guangdong (Zhang, 1997). The beetle has onegeneration per year, with adults emerging from June to August. The femalesgirdle branches by chewing off 10 mm strips of bark, with the eggs laid on thewound and covered with exudate. The larvae hatch from late August and live underthe bark until January when they bore into the xylem and create tunnels up 60 cmlong. In Taiwan Province of China, the white-spotted longicorn beetle,Anoplophora maculata (Thomson), has a one-year life cycle. Adults emergein spring and females insert about twenty eggs individually into T-shapedincisions in the bark, 0.5 m above the soil surface. The larval period lastsabout ten months. In Australia, the longicorn beetle, Uracanthuscryptophagus, causes similar damage (Plate 7).
Tunnelling by the larvae may kill branches, but rarely wholetrees. Ring-barking of twigs by ovipositing adults causes the shoot tips to dieand snap off. In China, regular inspections of trees during adult activityenable orchard workers to remove the beetles. Eggs and young larvae can also beremoved at the same time. Established larvae can be located from the appearanceof their frass, which is packed into the ends of tunnels. They can then be'fished out' with wire hooks and knives. Alternatively, dichlorvos is injectedand the tunnels sealed with clay (Zhang, 1997).
7.1.6 Scarab beetles
The elephant beetle, Xylotrupes gideon (Linnaeus), isimportant in all areas of Australia. The larvae develop in the soil or mulchwhere they feed on plant roots and humus. The large, heavily-sclerotised andsexually-dimorphic adults emerge in spring. Later, they are attracted to thefruit as they ripen, especially those that have split or been damaged by parrotsand fruit bats. They then start attacking sound fruit and can cause significanteconomic losses in the week or so leading up to harvest. Chemical control isunsatisfactory. Manual removal is effective in small trees, but difficult inlarge trees. Labour is relatively expensive in Australia, so this operation addssignificantly to growing costs.
7.1.7 Soft scales
Pulvinaria (Chlorpulvinaria) psidii(Maskell), the green shield scale, infests trees in China, Taiwan Province ofChina, Australia and India. In Queensland, crawlers are produced in spring byadult scales that infest the leaves and twigs. Some of these crawlers move ontothe flowers and young fruit. The female scales are sometimes mistaken formealybugs because the egg masses that are covered in waxy filaments cover theends of the scale.
Soft brown scale, Coccus hesperidum Linnaeus, is anoccasional pest in Queensland, where chemicals have disrupted its parasitoids orit is protected by ants. Parasaissetia nigra (Nietner) and Saissetiacoffeae (Walker) infest trees in India along with C. psidii, but theyare not important.
These scales cause no damage as they feed, but the fruitbecome unmarketable when significant populations develop on the surface, as theyoften do in China, Taiwan Province of China and Australia. The scales alsoproduce honeydew, which supports the growth of sooty mould on infested fruit andpanicles, and those below. These discoloured fruit are downgraded or rejected inthe market-place.
Severe infestations may be controlled with methidathion,although applications of mineral oil are preferred so that effective predators,the mealybug ladybird, Cryptolaemus montrouzieri Mulsant, and the greenlacewing, Mallada signata (Shneider) are not affected.
7.1.8 Bugs
Several bugs belonging to Tessaritomidae attack lychee andlongan throughout Asia and Australia. Tessaritoma papillosa Drury occursin southern China, Vietnam, Thailand, Myanmar, the Philippines and India,although Butani (1977) notes that Tessaritoma javanica Thunberg andTessaritoma quadrata Distant, are the main species in India. InAustralia, Lyramorpha rosea Westw. is known as the lychee stink bug, butrarely causes damage.
In China, T. papillosa has one generation per year.Adults tend to aggregate and over-winter mostly on lychee and longan, but mayalso be found on other hosts in warm protected areas. In spring, the females areattracted to trees with new flowers and shoots. They mate and lay up to 14 eggmasses, each containing about 14 eggs, on the back of leaves. Peak egg-layingoccurs in March in Guangdong, but continues through to September. The firstnymphs mature in June, while there are still old adults in the trees. These oldadults may have lived for up to a year, and generally die by August. The newadults do not mate immediately, but mature over winter and mate and lay eggs thefollowing spring.
Adults and nymphs feed on terminals, which may be killed, andalso on flowers and fruit, causing these to fall. Liu and Lai (1998) claimedthat up to 30 percent of fruit in commercial orchards are damaged despitechemical applications.
In Guangdong, the main natural enemies are the eggparasitoids, Encyrtus (Ooencyrtus) sp., Anastatus sp.and Blastophaga sp. which parasitise 70 to 90 percent of eggs laidlate in the season. Similar results were recorded by Liu and Lai (1998) whenparasitised egg cards were hung in trees during March. In orchards underintegrated pest management, combined parasitism rates by Anastatus sp.and Ooencytus sp. may reach 50 percent in June, but may be less than 3percent in orchards that rely on chemicals. During the 1970s, biological controlin Guangdong was initiated using the egg parasitoid Anastatusjaponicus Ashmead, the flat venter wasp, after field trials haddemonstrated its value. Since only 10 percent of eggs are parasitised by Aprilwhen most of the eggs are laid, natural control is ineffective. In contrast,very good control with up to 90 percent parasitism is achieved after massrelease of wasps.
In Thailand, the egg parasitoids Anastatus sp. nr.japonicus and Ooencrytus phongi, operate in a similar manner totheir counterparts in China. Low levels of control are achieved during thecritical early fruit production period, building up to good levels later. Massrearing of the parasitoids in the wild silk worm, Philosamia riciniHutt., and releasing them early, produced results similar to those in China.Anastatus sp. and O. phongi parasitised 79 percent and 21 percentof eggs, respectively (Nanta, 1992).
If chemicals are used, the timing of sprays is criticalbecause the bugs vary in their susceptibility to trichlorfon at different timesof the year, depending on body fat content and its nature.
Amblypelta nitida Stål, the fruitspotting bug,and Amblypelta lutescens lutescens (Distant), the banana spotting bug,are major pests of tropical fruit in Queensland (Waite, 1990). The adultsover-winter on citrus or non-crop native or exotic ornamentals, and start tomove into lychee and longan orchards in spring when the trees flower. Theyprefer to feed on green fruit, and so are very common just after fruit set.Orchards near rainforests where the bugs breed are particularly susceptible(Waite and Huwer, 1998).
The bugs feed on the developing seed and this causes the fruitto fall a couple of days later. The puncture mark is invisible on the fruitsurface and the only way to distinguish damage from natural drop is to dissectthe fruit. Fruit that has been attacked typically have a tan lesion on the seedtesta. Endosulfan should be applied if more than 10 percent of fallen fruit havebeen stung. Usually, a maximum of two sprays applied two weeks apart, during thefirst six weeks after fruit set is sufficient.
7.1.9 Mites
Erinose mite, Aceria litchii (Keiffer), also known ashairy mite, hairy spider, or dog ear mite, occurs throughout China, TaiwanProvince of China, India, Pakistan and Australia. Females lay eggs singly on theleaf surface amongst the erineum induced by their feeding. The eggs are only0.032 mm in diameter, spherical and translucent white. The mites are also small,only 0.13mm long and pinkish-white. All stages have only four legs, but arequite mobile and move easily from old leaves to infest new flushes. Theirfeeding stimulates the production of the erineum where they shelter and feed.Numbers vary with the cycle of shoot growth, and are highest in summer andlowest in winter. Planting material obtained as marcots may be infested if theyhave been taken from trees with the mites. Later infestations occur when themites are moved around the orchard by direct contact between trees, or carriedaround by orchard workers, wind and bees (Waite and McAlpine, 1992).
The mites attack new leaves causing a felt-like erineum to beproduced on the under-surface. This forms as small blisters but may eventuallycovers the entire leaf, causing it to curl. In severe cases, whole terminals maybe deformed. The young erineum is silver-white, changing to light brown and darkreddish-brown, and eventually black. The greatest numbers of mites are found inthe intermediate stages.
Many leaves are ruined if infestations are severe (Plate 8).This generally causes no problems in established trees, but can debilitate youngorchards. There can also be a problem if the mite moves from leaves onto thedeveloping flowers and fruit. Fruit set can be disrupted or the fruit deformed.Such fruit are unmarketable.
Numerous species of predatory mites, particularly those fromthe Phytoseidae, have been recorded with A. litchii (Wu et al.,1991; Waite and Gerson, 1994). Agistemus exsertus Gonzalez (Stigmaeidae),has been used for control in Guangdong, Guangxi and Fujian.
Branches infested with the mite should be cut off and burnt.The mites can be controlled by applying insecticides when they move from theolder leaves to a new flush. The leaves should be checked regularly for symptomsover summer and autumn. Not all trees in an orchard will be flushing or infestedat the same time. In Australia, three sprays of dimethoate or wettable sulphurevery two to three week during leaf emergence and expansion generally provideadequate control. Chemicals recommended in China include dichlorvos, dimethoate,dicofol, chlorpyrifos, omethoate and isocarbophos (Zhang, 1997).
7.1.10 Gall flies
The leaf midge, Dasyneura sp., is a major pest in China(Zhang, 1997). Litchiomyia chinensis Yang and Luo was described fromspecimens reared from galls on lychee leaves collected in Guangdong. The larvaeover-winter in the galls produced as a result of their feeding. They pupate inthe soil, with the adult flies initiating the first of eight overlappinggenerations from March. The midges prefer damp, closed canopies and dry out inexposed areas. The adults lay eggs in lines on young leaves. The larvae thenmine the leaf, causing 'watery dots' that later become the galls.These turn brown and eventually drop out, giving the leaf ashot-hole appearance.
In susceptible orchards, monitoring is not effective andpreventive procedures are required. As with erinose mite, infested leaves can beremoved after harvest and burnt. Later in the spring, methyl parathion (2.5percent) at 75 kg per ha can be distributed under the trees, or isofenphos(0.001 percent) can be sprayed on the ground just prior to emergence of theadults. In autumn, isocarbophos (0.001 percent) should be sprayed twice over twoweeks during early leaf development (Zhang, 1997).
7.1.11 Fruit flies
In Queensland, Bactrocera tryoni (Froggatt)occasionally attacks lychee, but is not considered economically significant.Females lay their eggs through the skin of the fruit, often utilizing cracks andwounds made by other pests. Although the eggs can hatch, the larvae rarelysurvive (de Villiers, 1992), probably because of the juice in mature fruitdrowns them. The flies in Queensland, and related species in Africa and Hawaii,are capable of ovipositing through the skin of lychee, although some cultivarsmay be too thick. The only real fly problem appears to be in South Africa, withCeratatis rosa. However, the level of damage is still quite low. In SouthAfrica, pheromone-baited traps can be used for monitoring populations. Controlis achieved with bait sprays of protein hydrolysate mixed with trichlorfon ormercaptothion. Alternatively, the panicles can be covered with paper bags afterthe November fruit drop.
7.2 Major diseases
No major disease currently limits commercial production inAsia. Diseases are more important after harvest, although undoubtedly many ofthe fruit are infected before picking. There are a few organisms that infect theleaves, flowers and fruit, and a few others associated with tree decline andtree deaths. Chemicals are generally available for controlling diseases on theflowers and fruit. In contrast, more efforts need to be made to control the lossof trees.
7.2.1 Brown blight
Brown blight, Peronophythora litchii, is a majordisease in both lychee and longan in China and Thailand, although more importantin the former. It is also reported to affect lychee in India. It is welldescribed in Guangdong, and attacks leaves and panicles, as well as fruit thatcan be infected right up to harvest. These infections all reduce production andshelf life. Flower panicles are particularly susceptible. Immature fruit turnbrown, while those infected before harvest have a white mildew growing on theskin.
The fungus over-winters in the soil or on old infected fruit,with the spores spread by wind, rain and insects. Continuous wet weather andtemperatures of 22° to 25°C favour infection. It is suggested thatgrowers clean up their orchard by removing shaded, infected and dead branchesafter harvest. Copper oxychloride during winter and copper sulphate in springalso help to reduce inoculum levels. These chemicals are replaced by fosetyl-Alor metalaxyl during flowering and fruit development.
7.2.2 Anthracnose
Anthracnose, Colletotrichum gloeosporoides, is a majordisease in Guangdong, and also occurs in India. Although it attacks leaves andbranches, along with flowers and flower stalks, infected fruit are unmarketable.Lesions on the leaves may appear as small round light grey areas, or irregularbrown marks at the tips. In contrast, infections are much more obvious on theflowers and fruit. Outbreaks are common after warm wet weather. The fungus maynot always cause immediate disease, which sometimes only becomes apparent afterharvest. Fungicides are used during an initial outbreak, but are not alwayseffective.
A form of anthracnose caused by Colletotrichumgloeosporioides (Glomerella cingulata in the sexual state) alsoaffects trees in Australia. Pepper spot causes superficial skin blemishes to thefruit, but does not effect production, fruit quality or shelf life. More thanhalf of the crop may be unmarketable in some orchards. The disease has beenrecorded on all cultivars, but is most severe on the popular Kwai MayPink.
The disease first appears as brown pinhead freckles, usuallyon the top of semi-mature fruit, in areas with overhanging branches. The spotsdo not increase in size, but rapidly turn black. More spots appear on the topand sides of the fruit and may, by harvest, cover up to half of the fruitsurface. Infections over-winter on the leaves, with the fungus potentiallyspread from nurseries to new orchards.
Until the appearance of pepper spot, lychee was generally freeof diseases affecting fruit or foliage in Australia. However, the occurrence ofthe disease has resulted in attempts to control it using copper oxychloride andcopper hydroxide. Calendar sprays of copper are costly and could lead tounacceptable residues if used close to harvest. Other chemicals such as mancozebare being evaluated.
7.2.3 Tree decline
A slow decline and a sudden death have been recorded in China,Viet Nam and Australia, especially in poorly drained soils. It can affect thewhole tree or just one or two branches. The symptoms include a sudden branchwilt that is followed by the decline of new growth on the affected branch over aperiod. In other situations, the tips die without wilting. The tree or branchmay recover temporarily, but subsequently dies. Parts of the tree flush andgrow, while other sections die.
A number of organisms including Phytophthora,Pythium and Fusarium have been isolated from the roots of trees,but it is not known where they cause the disease. A root rot caused bycl*tocybe is reported to kill trees in the Philippines. Growers areadvised not to plant on waterlogged soils.
Armillaria occasionally attacks roots and the base oftrees of any age causing death or slow decline. The fungus may survive in thesoil, or on stumps and roots of various trees for many years. The planting sitesneed to be fumigated before establishing new trees in the orchard.
7.2.4 Parasitic algae and nematodes
A parasitic algae, Cephaleuros virescens, occasionallyattacks trees in Australia causing loss of vigour. Cultivars such as SoueyTung and Haak Yip are very susceptible. It can be controlledwith two sprays of copper, before and after the wet season.
Nematodes such as Xiphinema, Paratrichodorus andHelicotylenchus are a problem in South Africa, but whether they aresignificant in Australia and Asia is not yet clear. Post-plant nematicides areused in South Africa, but have not been evaluated elsewhere.
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